The Greco-Roman Period: An Overview

The Greco-Roman Period of ancient Egypt is one of the most storied eras in the history of the nation. The era, which historians usually date between 332 BC and 641 AD, saw Egypt thrive under the leadership of some of the most noteworthy names in Egyptian history, including Cleopatra and Ptolemy. While foreign influence dominated the political landscape of Greco-Roman Egypt, Egyptian culture remained intact and the people of Egypt built some of the most awe-inspiring monuments in their history.

Before analyzing Egypt in the Greco-Roman Period, it is necessary to examine the political landscape of the kingdom before Greek and Roman rule. Prior to 332 BC, Egypt was ruled by the repressive Achaemenid Empire of Persia. When the Macedonian king Alexander the Great began his conquests of Achaemenid territory, he took over Egypt from Persian rule. Rather than regarding Alexander as a conqueror, the people of Egypt greeted Alexander and his army of Greek warriors as liberators. The reason for Egypt’s harmonious reception to Greek rule lay partly in Alexander’s embrace of Egyptian religion. Traveling to the Oracle of Amun, Alexander was declared the son of Amun and the chosen one of Ra.

When Alexander left to continue his conquest of Persian territory, he left his generals in charge of Egypt. Following Alexander’s death, the general Ptolemy gained control of Egypt. Ptolemy is regarded as one of the preeminent pharaohs of ancient Egypt, founding what historians now call the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic Dynasty lasted for three centuries and saw the establishment of Alexandria as the kingdom’s new capital. The time of the Ptolemaic pharaohs was marked by an increase in artistic and scientific output as the famed Great Library of Alexandria became the center of learning in the ancient world.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty ended in 30 BC when Cleopatra IV was pharaoh. During Cleopatra’s rule, the Roman Emperor Augustus invaded Egypt and turned the kingdom into a province for Rome. Roman rule saw Egypt serve as the breadbasket for the Roman army, with the fertile Nile Delta providing grain for Roman soldiers in their conquests. By far the biggest cultural change for Egypt in the Roman era was the province’s adoption of Christianity as its main religion, a change spurred on by the Emperor Constantine. Roman rule in Egypt continued well after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 as Constantinople became the administrative center of the empire. Despite this reprieve, Roman influence in Egypt would be shattered in 641, when Egypt was invaded by the Rashidun Caliphate.